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Widal Test- Introduction, Principle, Procedure, Interpretation and Limitation Introduction of Widal Test Widal Test is an agglutination test which detects the presence of serum agglutinins (H and O) in patients serum with typhoid and paratyphoid fever. When facilities for culturing are not available, the Widal test is the reliable and can be of value in the diagnosis of typhoid fevers in endemic areas.  It was developed by Georges Ferdinand Widal in 1896. The patient’s serum is tested for O and H antibodies (agglutinins) against the following antigen suspensions (usually stained suspensions): S . Typhi 0 antigen suspension, 9, 12 S . Typhi H antigen suspension, d S . Paratyphi A 0 antigen suspension, 1, 2, 12 S . Paratyphi A H antigen suspension, a S . Paratyphi B 0 antigen suspension, 1, 4, 5, 12 S . Paratyphi B H antigen suspension, b, phase 1 S . Paratyphi C 0 antigen suspension, 6, 7 S.  Paratyphi C H antigen suspension, c, phase 1 Salmonella  antibody starts appearing

Fungi as Human Pathogens Introduction Fungi that are pathogens are usually plant pathogenic Fungi. There are comparatively few species that are pathogenic to animals, especially mammals. According to Hawksworth (1992), there are approximate a little 1.5 million described species of fungi. A little more than 400 of these species are known to cause disease in animals, and far fewer of these species will specifically cause disease in people. Many of the latter will only be superficial types of diseases that are more of a cosmetic than a health problem. Thus, there are not many species of fungi that are pathogenic to human that will be fatal. The study of Fungi as animal and human pathogens is  medical mycology . There is also such a thing as  veterinary mycology , but the types of diseases that are found in your pets often are the same as those that are found in people. Because of the rarity of human diseases caused by Fungi, most people have little, if any, knowledge of such disea